Beutel et al. (2016): A German Representative Study
Beutel and colleagues' 2016 study in PLOS ONE measured procrastination in a representative German community sample of 2,527 people aged 14 to 95, one of the few population-level datasets in the field. Procrastination was clearly highest in the youngest group (14 to 29) and declined steadily across older age bands, with men procrastinating slightly more than women in that youngest group. Higher procrastination went with more stress, depression, anxiety, fatigue and loneliness, and with lower life satisfaction, unemployment and being single.
| Citation | Beutel, M. E., Klein, E. M., Aufenanger, S., Brähler, E., Dreier, M., Müller, K. W., Quiring, O., Reinecke, L., Schmutzer, G., Stark, B., & Wölfling, K. (2016). Procrastination, distress and life satisfaction across the age range: A German representative community study. PLOS ONE, 11(2), e0148054. |
|---|---|
| Study type | Cross-sectional representative population survey |
| Sample | 2,527 people aged 14 to 95, representative of the German population |
| Key finding | Procrastination declines with age, peaking at ages 14 to 29; higher procrastination associated with stress, depression, anxiety, fatigue, loneliness and lower life satisfaction |
What the study found
Using a short form of the General Procrastination Scale in a representative household sample, the study mapped procrastination across the lifespan. The age gradient was the headline: the 14 to 29 group scored highest, with each older band scoring lower, and within the youngest group men scored higher than women. Procrastination was associated with worse outcomes across the board, more perceived stress, depression and anxiety symptoms, fatigue and loneliness, lower life satisfaction including satisfaction with work and income, and higher rates of unemployment and being single.
Why it matters
Almost everything else in this literature comes from student volunteers, so this study answers the obvious objection: does any of it generalise? It does, and it adds two facts students cannot show. First, the age decline, consistent with self-regulation maturing (the prefrontal cortex is still developing into the mid-twenties) and with life roles forcing structure, procrastination is partly something people grow out of. Second, the distress correlations hold in the general population, matching Stead's student findings at national scale.
Caveats
Cross-sectional data cannot separate ageing from generational effects: today's 60-year-olds may always have procrastinated less than today's 20-year-olds, smartphone-era distraction being one candidate explanation. All measures were self-report, and older respondents may under-report delay. The associations with distress are correlational, and the study cannot say whether procrastination causes unhappiness, unhappiness causes procrastination, or both stem from shared traits.
Peer-reviewed, open-access study in PLOS ONE with a representative population sample. Verified via Crossref.
Related
Steel's meta-analysis, including prevalence estimatesStead et al. on procrastination and mental health
Frequently asked questions
Does procrastination get better with age?
On average, yes. This representative study found procrastination highest at ages 14 to 29 and steadily lower in each older age group. Maturing self-regulation and more externally structured lives both likely contribute, though cross-sectional data cannot fully rule out generational differences.
Who procrastinates the most?
In this population study: young people, and among the young, men slightly more than women. High procrastinators were also more likely to be unemployed, single, stressed and dissatisfied with life, a cluster of associations, not a set of causes.